Dr. Len Unsworth
A functional model of language argues that the grammatical forms which language takes are influenced by variables in the social context in which the language is used. These contextual variables are Mode, Field and Tenor. Mode refers to the role that language plays in the particular context of situation (e.g. whether language completely constitutes that context, as in lectures, or whether the language is more ancilliary, simply accompanying action, as in playing sport). Mode also takes into account whether the channel of language use is aural or graphic and whether the language medium is spoken or written. Aspects of Mode influence textual meaning - at the stratum of semantics, and textual meaning is concerned with the distribution of emphases or information value in a text. This is realized grammatically by the system of Theme/Rheme (as well as some other systems like Given/New).
We have discussed the influence of the contextual variable Field. It is concerned with the nature of the social activity - somewhat oversimplistically we can think of this as the content or subject matter of topic. At the level of semantics then, Field influences ideational (experiential and logical) meaning, and experiential meanings are realized grammatically by the system of transitivity, which is the configurations of Partcipants, Processes and Circumstances we discussed in the last two sessions.
In this session we deal with the influence on language form of the contextual variable Tenor. This refers to the roles and relationships among those involved in the context of situation. At the level of semantics, these roles and relationships influence the kinds of interpersonal meanings that are constructed. These interpersonal meanings are realized grammatically by the systems of Mood and Modality. The part of the model we are concerned with in this session is bordered by the thick dark lines in the diagram below, and the grammatical systems of Mood and Modality are shown with thick hatched lines.
Mood structures reflect speaker-listener (and reader-writer) relationships. If I say to a student, "Close the door", the directive implies either a formal relationship akin to superior and subordinate, or, if the tone of voice is warm and friendly, a relationship of relaxed familiarly. The structure of the clause indicates the selection of the imperative mood. If I phrase the message as a question, "Would you close the door?" the language implies a relationship based on equality, cordiality or respect. The structure of the clause here indicates the selection of the interrogative mood. But this is not the most straightforward (or congruent) way of communicating a directive or command to close the door. The interrogative is usually used to demand information (question) not to demand some kind of service (like shutting the door). When the interrogative mood is used incongruently for issuing a directive demanding some service, some young children, understandably, do not interpret the utterance as a command:
"Would you like to put your paper and pencils in your trays now?"
Through her choice of language the teacher is according the children a level of equality in interacting with adults, which some may not be familiar with. Such children are more familiar with the subordinate role implied by the usual or congruent form of command - the imperative:
"Please put your paper and pencils in your trays now."
The different relationships between speakers and listeners (and readers and writers) are reflected through different grammatical Mood structures. A further Mood structure is called declarative mood, which is most frequently used for expressing information. Information is usually expressed as a statement as in The door is closed. Note however, that declarative mood can also be used incongruently to realize a command:
You should close the door.
The door needs to be closed.
Again some children will not readily interpret such utterances as commands.
We can now summarize what we have learned to date about the way language is organized as an interactive event involving a speaker/ writer and an audience. What is at stake is the role adopted by the speaker/writer and the role that is therefore assigned to the listener/reader.
There are two fundamental roles in linguistic exchanges:
(i) giving, and (ii) demanding.
And there are two commodities that can be exchanged:
(i) information and (ii) goods and services.
These variables, taken together, define the four primary forms of linguistic exchange:
offer, command, statement, question. These and congruently realized examples are shown in the following table (Remember that these speech roles can be realized using other than the congruent mood selections).
Mood is a clause constituent that consists of the Subject together with the Finite element of the verbal group. As we have noted in previous sessions, the Subject can be recognized because it is the element "picked up" by a tag question. In the following sentence:
Some members of your class want to join the society.
The subject is Some members of your class because this is the element that would be picked up in the tag question "don't they?". The subjects in the following sentences appear in upper case:
One day ALFIE AND MUM AND ANNIE ROSE were coming home. (Weren't they?)
At school A LOT OF ILL FEELING AND DISRUPTION was caused by the dress code. (Wasn't it?)
SHE must go to the ball. (Mustn't she?)
The Finite can be recognized because it is one of a small number of verbal operators or "auxiliaries" which express tense or modality.
Tense is expressed by the verbal operators in the following table:
PAST PRESENT FUTURE
did, was does, is will, shall
had, used to has would, should
Note that in some cases in the simple present or simple past tense the Finite is "fused" with the lexical verb. We say "loves" and not "does love" unless we are wanting to emphasize a contrast. Similarly we say "gave" and not "did give" unless we are wanting to be contrastive. In cases where the finite is fused with the lexical verb, it does not appear explicitly in the clause, so conventionally we indicate the first letter of the lexical verb as signifying the presence of the Finite.
Modality is expressed by the verbal operators in the following table:
LOW MEDIAN HIGH
can, may will must,
ought to
could, might would, should need to
is to, was to has to,
had to
Modality can be thought of as "the distance between yes and no". It represents degrees of inclination, obligation, probability or usuality.
Polarity is also part of the Finite element of the verbal group. It is expressed by "not" in the case of negative polarity and is unmarked in the case of positive polarity.
It is the elements of the Mood that make the proposition arguable. You can argue about who/what the Subject is. You can argue about the polarity - yes/no. The Finite gives the proposition a reference point in the here and now so that it is also something that can be argued about. Temporal operators make it arguable with reference to the time of speaking. Modal operators make the proposition arguable by being presented as likely, unlikely, desirable or undesirable ie. by reference to the speaker/writer's judgment of the probabilities or obligations involved.
The Mood elements indicate the speaker's/writer's interpersonal stance (extent of conviction etc) in relation to the proposition. Consider the following text by Cherie (quoted in Butt et al, 1995:80) on "What makes a good teacher?".
What makes a good teacher?
A good teacher needs to be understanding to all children. He or she also must be fair and reasonable. The teacher must work at a sensible pace and not one thing after another. The teacher also needs to speak with a clear voice so the children can understand. If the children have worked hard during the week there should be some fun activities. Thats what I think a good teacher should be like.
In the Mood analysis of this text below, note the proportion of high Finite modal verbs.
Mood Adjuncts we have also noted in previous sessions. These relate specifically to the meaning of the finite verbal operators, expressing probablility, usuality, obligation, inclination or time. They are part of the Mood element.
Probability/obligation certainly, surely, probably, perhaps, maybe, possibly, definitely, positively.
Usuality always, often, usually, regularly, typically,
occasionally,seldom,rarely,ever,
never, once.
Presumption evidently, apparently, presumably,clearly, no doubt, obvious,of course
Inclination gladly, willingly, readily.
Time yet, still, already, once, soon, just.
Degree quite, almost, nearly, totally,entirely,
utterly,completely, literally, absolutely,
scarcely, hardly.
Intensity just, simply ever, only, really,actually.
Pollution is always a problem near coal fired stations
Mood | Residue
Subject F|Adj.Md| Comp Adj(Circ)
Certainly pollution is less near hydro stations.
Mood |Residue
Adj.Md Subject F | Comp Adj(Circ)
The following is a "creative" reconstruction of an incident which occurred with a fourth year student some years ago. Finite Modals and Mood Adjuncts are bold and Mood Adjuncts are also italicized. Some other elements contributing to interpersonal meaning are underlined.
The following diagram from Halliday's (1994:357) Introduction to Functional Grammar, summarizes the resources of Mood and Modality as the "space" between yes and no.
Comment Adjuncts are an additional element in the Mood structure of the clause. These are items like "unfortunately"; "frankly"; "honestly"; "luckily"; "understandably"; "objectively" etc. They express the speaker's/writer's comment or judgment on what s/he is saying/writing.
The following text shows the deployment of the resources of Mood and Modality in a discussion on the future of suburban estuaries (Butt et al, 1995:80). Finite modals are in bold; Mood Adjuncts are in bold and italics and Comment Adjuncts are in bold and underlined:
Structure of the Residue.
(a) Predicator. This is the verbal group minus the temporal or modal operator. The verbal groups in the following clauses are underlined. The Predicators are shown in UPPER CASE.
More and more machines are CONTROLLED by computers.
You can SWITCH ON the electric light at any time.
Most of the electricity we use at home is MADE at a power station.
The machines have BEEN WORKING 24 hours a day for many years.
Coal burning power stations may BE GOING TO BE REPLACED by nuclear power plants.
The Predicator itself is non-finite (because it is the verbal group minus the temporal or modal operator). Some clauses are non-finite, containing a Predicator but no Finite element. The non-finite clauses are shown in italics and the Predicator is shown in UPPER CASE:
The rain fell day after day FLOODING local creeks.
TO GET the prize she put his name on the form.
The little boy became lost while SHOPPING with his mother.
You have to walk for five kilometres TO SEE another house.
There are two verbs in English which, in simple present and simple past tense appear as Finite only. These are the verbs be and have (in the sense of possess):
A light bulb is a very common thing in our lives.
Electricity substations are very dangerous places.
Nearly every dwelling in Australia has electric power.
(b) Complement. A Complement is an element within the Residue that has the potential of being Subject but is not. It is typically realized by a nominal group.
The whole country is criss-crossed by a network of cables
Mood | Residue
Subject |F | Predicator Complement
A network of cables criss-crosses the whole country.
Mood |Residue
Subject |F| Predicator Complement
Some power stations burn coal or oil.
Mood |Residue
Subject |F|Pr|Complement
Coal or oil is burned by some power stations.
Mood |Residue
Subject |F|Predicator |Complement
There is one exception to this principle. That is an attributive Complement:
Hydro-electricity is very cheap.
Subject |F |Complement
Sir Donald Bradman is a great cricketer.
Teaching is a very rewarding profession.
(c) Adjunct (Circumstantial). An adjunct is an element that has not got the potential to become Subject.
The wires go into your home at the electricity meter.
Mood Residue
Subject | F|Pr Adjunct Adjunct
We use electricity for many things.
Mood |Residue
Sub F|P Complement Adjunct
Here we will firstly note briefly that interpersonal meanings in texts are also constructed through the selection of lexical items with certain attitudinal loadings. We will then look at the use of Mood, Modality and attitudinal lexis as a resource for fostering critical/resistant reading through a brief examination of two texts which have appeared in the Sydney Morning Herald in recent years. Finally we will note some ways in which these resources are deployed in the kinds of factual texts children encounter in school.
The lexical choices or vocabulary selection in texts can contribute to a positive or negative affective perspective. Consider the following text by Elizabeth Taylor from Michael Jackson's History: past, present and future. Book 1. Epic, 1995.
Notice the high proportion of lexical items with high positive affect:
Compare that text with the following from Killing for luxury (Bright, 1988). Lexical items with high negative affect are underlined.
The following is the text of an advertisement for MBF, which appeared in the Sydney Morning Herald on November 7, 1992.
In the figure below this advertisement is reproduced showing the deployment of the resources of Mood and Modality and attitudinal lexis.
Teaching children about these grammatical resources gives them a metalanguage as a practical resource for critical literacy.
In 1991 Dr Victor Chang was murdered in Sydney. Shortly after his death the Sydney Morning Herald (29.08.95) published the following letter from his daughter to the then Premier of NSW, Mr Nick Greiner:
Dear Mr. Greiner
WHY HAVEN'T GUN LAWS BEEN CHANGED?
THE SHOCKING AND SENSELESS KILLING OF MY OWN FATHER, VICTOR CHANG, FORCES ME TO WRITE THIS LETTER. I CANNOT BELIEVE THAT HIS DEATH AND THE MURDER OF SO MANY OTHERS IN THE LAST TERRIBLE WEEKS HAS NOT PROMPTED AN IMMEDIATE RESPONSE FROM THE GOVERNMENT!
After the needless killing of over a dozen people in the last two months I must emphasise the desperate need to review and reform existing policies on the possession of arms in this state. Policies which, at present, are NOT stringent enough to prevent the slaughter of innocents.
How many more tragedies will have to occur? How many families will have to live with the anguish of not only the death of their loved one, but the thought that it could have been prevented?
I appeal to you Mr. Greiner, to realize past mistakes and help rectify the existing situation now, before more lives are sacrificed. I know that criminals cannot be stopped but surely we can limit or STOP their easy access to lethal weapons!
It would be irresponsible to ignore Australia's plea to reform antiquated gun law policies!
Sincerely,
VANESSA CHANG
In the first figure below attention is drawn to the attitudinal lexis, which is boxed, and some of the impact is summarized to the right of the text. Most of the lexical items are highly negative, with the further progression from "killing" to "slaughter" to "sacrifice" as indicated. The two highly positive items of "innocents" and "loved one" are in stark contrast to the rest of the text.
To help children to appreciate the effect of these kinds of lexical choices in such texts, it is useful to set cloze type activities, directing children to fill items which are more neutral than highly negative:
The text could be divided into several short sections such as the one above and then two or three groups work separately on each section. The children might then "regroup" to discuss different responses to the same segment and then "regroup" again to learn about how other groups completed the sections they did not work on. All groups could also compare their work with the original. Some groups might experiment with the use of more highly negative lexical items.
But the letter makes use of additional grammatical resources for realizing interspersonal meanings. The use of modal verbs and mood adjuncts is indicated in the following figure:
Notice in this letter that the use of high modal verbs is clustered in the first part of the letter and the low or medium modals are used in the final section of the letter. Is it the case that these low modals offer more room for manoeuvrability when the text is dealing with proposed action to be taken? Again cloze activities could be used to have the children experiment with the effects of different choices of modal verbs. Firstly they could maintain the high or low modals as in the letter and just try different choices within each category e.g. "ought to" and "need to" instead of "must" and the use of "might" and "may" instead of "could" and "would". Then they could try changing the intensity of the modals used. What would be the effect of using high modals in the final sections of the letter ?
The key part of using these cloze activities is the discussion about what to put into each space and the sharing of children's understanding of the effects of the choices made. It is the talk about the task that can develop children's explicit knowledge of the grammatical resources being used and their understanding of the effects of different grammatical choices.
There are, of course, many more subtle uses of grammatical resources to achieve particular interpersonal effects in this text and we will not pursue all of those. However we should not that these grammatical choices work in combination to achieve their effects. To conclude our discussion of the Vanessa Chang letter, the following figure indicates the ways in which she uses language resources to issure directives or commands to the Premier of the time.
A further note on Mood and Modality in factual texts
We have considered attitudinal lexis in the factual text at the beginning of this session and Mood and Modality in factual texts in the previous session. Sometimes the resources of Mood and Modality are integral to the relative certainty of the knowledge or usuality of the occurrences:
Usually dead plant leaves and stems, when they fall to the ground, are broken down and become part of the soil humus (Heffernan and Learmonth, 1988).
Normally, if plant material is left on the ground surface in contact with the air (oxygen), it decomposes (Chapman, Perry and Stead, 1989).
But sometimes the use of modal verbs and mood adjuncts has more to do with the interpersonal positioning of the reader:
To discover the cause of the seasons, we must look again at the Earth in its orbit around the sun (Bramwell, 1987).
You can even here sound travelling through wood (Pettigrew, 1986).
Thus coal is merely carbonized plant remains (Chapman, Perry and Stead, 1989).
Part of developing critical literacy is becoming alert to these kinds of interpersonal positionings.